不丹的移民动态：近期趋势、驱动因素及其影响（英）2025

Jumana AlarefAlvin Etang NdipCheku DorjiLaurine MartinotyPublic Disclosure Authorized MIGRATIONDYNAMICSIN BHUTAN RECENT TRENDS, DRIVERS,AND IMPLICATIONS Jumana AlarefAlvin Etang NdipCheku DorjiLaurine Martinoty Disclaimer Thiswork is a product of the staff of The World Bank with externalcontributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in thiswork do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board ofExecutive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank doesnot guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data includedin this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions,or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of orfailure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth.The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on anymap in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bankconcerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptanceof such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be construed or considered to be alimitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank,all of which are specifically reserved. Rights and PermissionsThe material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, inwhole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to thiswork is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should beaddressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H StreetNW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625;e-mail:pubrights@worldbank.org. Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: Alaref, Jumana; Etang Ndip, Alvin;Dorji, Cheku; and Martinoty, Laurine. 2025. Migration Dynamics in Bhutan:Recent Trends, Drivers, and Implications. Washington, DC: World Bank. DesignTandin Namgyal, Kuensel ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ashiq Aziz, Sonam Lhamo, and Suhail Kassim whoprovided input and feedback at various pointsduring the report’s preparation. The team isthankful to Tsholing Agriculture and EnvironmentStudies for conducting the data collectionexercise for this report, Kinley Shering for editingthe report, and Tandin Namgyal for graphicallydesigning it. This report was prepared by a team co-led byJumana Alaref and Alvin Etang Ndip and includesCheku Dorji and Laurine Martinoty. Aishwarya Patiland Phillippe Leite provided valuable contributionsat the design, questionnaire development, andsampling stages of data collection. The team would like to thank the following WorldBank Group colleagues: Cecile Fruman, StefanoPaternostro, Mathew A. Verghis, Cem Mete, XimenaDel Carpio, S. Amer Ahmed, Souleymane Coulibaly,and Adama Coulibaly who provided feedback,guidance, and support from management;Maheshwor Shrestha, Matthew Dornan, andMauro Testaverde who served as peer reviewersat the decision review stage for the report; and The team would like to express its appreciation toexternal stakeholders who provided feedback andassistance at different points during the reportpreparation process from the Royal Governmentof Bhutan, namely the Ministry of Industry,Commerce, and Employment (MoICE) and theNational Statistics Bureau. 4.2For aspiring migrants, while pull factors aresimilar, push factors such as unemploymentand dissatisfaction with working conditionsplay a big role, especially in the aftermath ofCOVID-19 pandemic................................................................15 Acknowledgements....................................................................................iiiExecutive summary................................................................................. vii Introduction............................................................................... xi 1.1Bhutan’s External Migration Trends between2000 -2020................................................................................... xiii1.2Objectives of the Report and Methodology............xvi1.3Limitations.....................................................................................xvii1.4Organization of the Report..............................................xviii Section 5. Prospects of Migrants Returningto Bhutan and Aspiring Migrants Remainingin Bhutan.....................................................................................18 5.1Aspiring migrants’ reservation wage is threetimes higher than their current monthlyincome in Bhutan, and around one-fourth ofmigrants would require the equivalent wagethey earn in Australia or higher in order toconsider returning to Bhutan............................................185.2The reservation wages of both migrants andaspiring migrants will be difficult to achievegiven the wage structures in the domesticlabor market..................................................................................205.3Regardl