交通流动性对就业机会的直接和间接影响：来自南非的证据

11255 Direct and Indirect Impacts of TransportMobility on Access to Jobs Evidence from South Africa Atsushi Iimi Transport Global DepartmentNovember 2025 A verified reproducibility package for this paper isavailable athttp://reproducibility.worldbank.org,clickherefor direct access. Policy Research Working Paper11255 Abstract Access to jobs is essential for economic growth. In Africa,unemployment rates are notably high. This paper reexam-ines the relationship between transport mobility and labormarket outcomes, with a particular focus on the direct andindirect effects of transport connectivity. As predicted bytheory, wages are influenced by the level of commutingdeterrence. Generally, higher earnings are associated withlonger commute times and/or higher commuting costs.Local accessibility is also important, especially for individ-uals with time constraints. Both direct and indirect impactsare found to be significant in South Africa, where job acces-sibility has been challenging since the end of apartheid. For the direct impact, the wage elasticity associated withcommuting costs is significant. Returns on commute areparticularly high for women. Local accessibility to socio-economic facilities, such as shops and health services, isalso found to have a significant impact, consistent withthe concept of mobility of care. To enhance employment,therefore, it is crucial to connect people not only to joblocations but also to various socioeconomic points of inter-est, such as markets and hospitals, in an integrated manner.This integration will enable individuals to spend more timeworking and commuting longer distances. This paper is a product of the Transport Global Department.. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provideopen access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy ResearchWorking Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The author may be contacted ataiimi@worldbank.org. A verified reproducibility package for this paper is available athttp://reproducibility.worldbank.org, clickherefor direct access. The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about developmentissues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry thenames of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely thoseof the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank andits affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. Direct and Indirect Impacts of Transport Mobility on Access to Jobs: Evidence from South Africa Atsushi Iimi¶ Eastern and Southern Africa, TransportThe World Bank GroupThe United States Keywords: Jobs, Wages, Labor force participation, Transportation, Gender gaps. JEL classification: J21, J31, O18, R41. I. Introduction 1.This paper aims to cast light on the relationship between labor force participation andtransport mobility at different levels. While numerous studies discuss various aspects related tolabor market outcomes, urban transport accessibility is also extensively covered in the literature.However, the intersection between the two remains relatively underexamined. There are twoprimary interactions. The first is the direct impact of commuting deterrence on employment (e.g.,Rupert et al., 2009; Le Barbanchon et al., 2021). The second is the often-overlooked indirectimpact related to local accessibility. These impacts, though interrelated, are distinct. Poortransport mobility not only limits job search areas but also forces individuals, particularly thosewith household responsibilities, to spend additional time on other daily activities, such asshopping and childcare. This paper presents a theoretical framework incorporating both directand indirect impacts and applies it to unique data from South Africa. 2.Access to well-paid jobs is fundamental for sustainable economic growth. Various recentglobal crises, such as the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the ensuingworldwide trade stagnation, have underscored its importance, especially in the developing world.In 2020, approximately 6 billion jobs were lost globally due to COVID-19 (ILO, 2022a). Despitean earlier-than-expected recovery, there remains a global employment gap of 470 million (ILO,2023). In Africa, 15 million jobs disappeared (ILO, 2022b), and real wages declined sharply by10.5 percent, largely due to globally increased prices of goods and services. Well-paid jobs areneeded more than ever in Africa, the world’s youngest continent, where half of the regionalpopulation is under 18 years old. 3.Job accessibility has long been a challenge. The literat