进入壁垒：分解巴基斯坦城市求职中的性别差距2025

11142 Produced by the Research Support TeamAbstractThe Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about developmentissues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry thenames of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely thoseof the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank andits affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.Policy Research Working Paper11142Gender gaps in labor market outcomes persist in SouthAsia. An open question is whether supply- or demand-sideconstraints play a larger role. This paper investigates thisusing matched data from three sources in Lahore, Paki-stan: representative samples of jobseekers and employers,administrative data from a job matching platform, and anThis paper is a product of the Social Development Global Department. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank toprovide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. PolicyResearch Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contactedat kvyborny@worldbank.org. incentivized binary choice experiment. Employers’ genderrestrictions are a larger constraint on women’s job opportu-nities than supply-side decisions. This demand-side gap inthe quantity of job opportunities closes as education levelsincrease and jobs become more “white-collar.” Barriers to Entry:Decomposing the Gender Gap in Job Searchin Urban Pakistan∗Elisabetta Gentile†Nikita Kohli‡Nivedhitha SubramanianZunia Tirmazee¶Kate Vyborny‖Keywords:gender,discrimination,jobsearch,jobsplatform,vacancies,applications.JELCodes:J16,J22,J23,R23.We are grateful for valuable feedback from Alessandra Voena and anonymous referees.We appreciate inputfrom seminar participants at Duke, and conference participants at Yale-ADBI Gender-Sensitive Economic Recov-ery Conference, Maine Economics Conference, the Diversity and Human Capital Workshop at Exeter, Asian andAustralasian Society of Labour Economics, Liberal Arts College Development Economics Conference, Asian Devel-opment Bank, Yale Economic Growth Center, IDSC of IZA Matching Workers and Jobs Online workshop, EuropeanEconomic Association, Lahore School of Economics Applied Development Economics conference, and NEUDC. Wethank Niharika Singh, Hideo Owan, Danila Serra, Emily Conover, Livia Alfonsi, and Rohini Pande for comments.We thank the entire Job Talash team at CERP and Duke for excellent research assistance and programmatic sup-port. We thank Erica Field and Rob Garlick for helpful comments on the draft and collaboration on the broaderJob Talash program of research. We gratefully acknowledge funding for this project from ADB, and for the broaderJob Talash research program from the GLM-LIC, 3IE, IGC, J-PAL, PEDL, and the National Science Foundation(SES #1629317). This research received ethics approval from Duke University (#2019-0067). Previously presentedas “A Leaky Pipeline: Decomposing the gender gap in job search in urban Pakistan”.South Asia Department, Asian Development Bank and Global Labor OrganizationSanford School of Public Policy, Duke UniversityDepartment of Economics, Bates CollegeCenter for Research in Economics and Business, Lahore School of EconomicsSouth Asia Gender Innovation Lab, World Bank § 1IntroductionVast gender gaps in employment, stemming from low levels of women’s employment, persist inmany low- and middle- income economies, particularly in South Asia, the Middle East, and NorthAfrica (Addati et al., 2016). A growing literature documents that supply side factors such as self-selection into occupations that conform to gender identity, differing preferences for job attributes,gendered social norms about time use, and household members’ preferences that women stayat home constrain women’s labor supply in these contexts.However, demand-side rather thansupply-side factors might form the binding constraint to women’s labor for a larger fraction of thepopulation in contexts with low female labor force participation (FLFP). Indeed, a smaller body ofwork demonstrates that demand-side factors can contribute to gender gaps in employment (Kuhnand Shen, 2013; Goldin and Rouse, 2000; Hangartner et al., 2021; Ozen et al., 2019).Despite the wealth of research on low female employment, we have limited evidence quantifyingthe relative size of demand and supply factors that give rise to this phenomenon. In addition, muchof the existing evidence focuses on specific populations (e.g.educated women) or sectors (e.g.government work).Knowing whether supply or demand constraints are binding in the broaderlabor m