解决多元无知问题，促进性别平等（英）

ELIZABETH COSTENBADER, LORENA LEVANO GAVIDIA,ANA MARÍA MUÑOZ BOUDET ABSTRACT: Pluralistic ignorance is a social norms phenomenon in which peoplemistakenly believe that their personal preferences are not what mostpeople around them support or prefer. This misalignment can leadindividuals to adjust their behaviors away from their preferences.Pluralistic ignorance can also explain why certain social norms, particularlythose that support or justify harmful practices and/or actions that limitwomen’s and girls’ opportunities, might stay in place. Learning how toaddress pluralistic ignorance through policy interventions can accelerategender equality and address harmful social norms. This note providesbackground on what pluralistic ignorance is, how to identify it, andpractical guidance on how to address it. TABLE OF CONTENT I.BACKGROUND1II.DEFINING PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE3III.PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE AS A POLICY CONCERN5IV.THE CHALLENGES OF IDENTIFYING AND INTERVENING ON PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE8V.CONCLUSION12APPENDIX A CHECKLIST: 10 KEY STEPS TO IDENTIFY AND ADDRESS PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE INGENDER EQUALITY INTERVENTIONS13REFERENCES15 This thematic policy note is part of a series that provides an analytical foundation for the new World BankGender Strategy (2024–2030). This series seeks to give a broad overview of the latest research and findingson gender equality outcomes and summarizes key thematic issues, evidence on promising solutions,operational good practices, and key areas for future engagement in promoting gender equality andempowerment. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work are entirely those ofthe author(s). They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank or its Board of Directors. This thematic policy note was written by Elizabeth Costenbader, Lorena Levano Gavidia, and Ana MaríaMuñoz Boudet. The team thanks Rachael Susan Pierotti and Tasmia Rahman for their helpful feedback andvaluable input. I. BACKGROUND Evidence from low- and middle-income countriesconsistently shows that efforts to advance genderequality, address barriers, and expand opportunities forwomen and girls must include a clear understanding of,and deliberately address, the social norms that shapebehavior.Pluralistic ignorance (PI) is a social phenomenonthat arises when people misperceive how common oraccepted certain behaviors are among those around themand can lead individuals to act in ways that contradict theirindividual preferences or beliefs. PI has become a recurringfinding and a growing focus of interventions that addresssocial norms impacting gender equality, such as those thatcontribute to gender-based violence or impede women’sparticipation in the labor force. Until recently, social norms were most commonlymeasured by looking at proxy or indirect measures of theirexistencesuch as by looking at outcomes assumed to bestrongly dependent on social norms (e.g., child marriage orwomen’s employment); by examining the views expressedby many/the majority on attitudes or opinion surveys; or byassessing the presence or absence of specific related legalframeworks or policies (e.g., parental leave policies). Morerecently, however, the field of social norms measurementhas advanced, and it has become more common for surveysand studies to include direct measures of social norms. Thisshift has facilitated the identification of PI. Social norms are a key element of persistent genderinequality.They operate as the set of informal rules thatdefine which actions are considered acceptable, appropriate,or obligatory within a given group or community (Cialdini,Reno, & Kallgren, 1990; Cislaghi & Heise, 2018). Gender norms,the societal expectations of how individuals ought to behavein their everyday lives based on their gender, often reinforceand perpetuate a cycle of internalization and endorsementof gender inequalities (Heise et al., 2019) and have beenshown to significantly shape and limit the opportunities andrights of women worldwide (Alesina, Giuliano, & Nunn, 2013;Bertrand, Kamenica, & Pan, 2015; Chamlou, Muzi, & Ahmed,2016; Fernández, 2013; World Bank, 2012). These beliefsmake norms powerful drivers of behavior. For instance, inmany countries, there are shared expectations of whichjobs are socially appropriate for women and men to holdand whether it is socially acceptable for women to starttheir own businesses. Social norms also shape decisionsabout marriage and childbearing, affecting women’s time,household finances, and participation in the labor market. Advances in measurement have been supported by agrowing consensus across social science theory on a fewkey dimensions of social norms.In particular, social normsare understood to consist of two types of socially held beliefs: 1.Empirical expectations— beliefs about how othersbehave in a given situation (also referred to asdescriptive norms) (Bicchieri, 2006; 2016; Cialdini,Kallgren, & Reno, 1991; Cialdini & Trost, 1998; Fishbein& Ajzen, 2010); and