亚洲的劳动力迁移：公平的招聘、培训和发展

Fair Recruitment, Training, and Development LABOR MIGRATION IN ASIA:FAIR RECRUITMENT, TRAINING,AND DEVELOPMENT Copyright © 2025 Asian Development Bank Institute, International Labour Organization, and Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development. The Work shall be available under the Creative CommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO License. OECDISBN: 978-9-26459-332-9 (PDF)DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/0360fe19-en Print ISBN: 978-4-89974-339-2 ADBIISBN: 978-4-89974-340-8 (PDF)DOI: https://doi.org/10.56506/MXNX3325 ILOISBN: 978-9-22042-379-0 (PDF) This publication was jointly prepared by the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), the Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the International Labour Organization (ILO). For the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) and International Labour Organization (ILO) theresponsibility for opinions expressed and arguments employed in signed articles, studies and othercontributions rests solely with their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement or officialview by ADBI or ILO or their respective Board of Governors or the governments they represent. For the OECD, this work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. Theopinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of theMember countries of the OECD. Neither ADBI, ILO nor the OECD, guarantees the accuracy of the data included in this publication andaccepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. By making any designation of or reference to, or by providing any data on or map of a particular territory,city or geographic area, neither ADBI, ILO, nor OECD intend to make any judgments as to the legal or otherstatus of or sovereignty over any territory, city or area, nor to the delimitation of international frontiers andboundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement byADBI, ILO, or OECD and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product, or process is not asign of disapproval. The names and representation of geographic areas used in this joint publication follow the practice of ADBI. ADB recognizes “China” as the People’s Republic of China; “Korea” as the Republic of Korea; “Laos” as theLao People’s Democratic Republic. Note:In this publication, “$” refers to United States dollars. Asian Development Bank InstituteKasumigaseki Building 8F3-2-5, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-kuTokyo 100-6008, Japanwww.adbi.org Organisation for Economic Co-operationand Development2, rue André Pascal75775 Paris Cedex 16Francewww.oecd.org International Labour OrganizationRegional Office for Asia and the PacificUnited Nations Building, 11th FloorRajdamnern Nok Avenue, P.O. Box 2-349Bangkok 10200, Thailandwww.ilo.org/asia Tables, Figures, and BoxesivForewordviAcknowledgmentsviiiList of Contributorsviii1Trends in Labor Migration in Asia11.1Introduction11.2Changing Trends: The Post-COVID-19 Rebound Appears to Have Ended11.3Labor Migration to OECD and non-OECD Asian Economies61.4Labor Migration to non-Asian OECD Countries141.5International Student Mobility to and from Asia201.6Gender Composition of Deployment of Workers from Asian Countries221.7Skill Levels of Migrants Deployed in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries and Asian Economies232Fair Recruitment in Asia: Issues, Challenges, and Progress Achieved262.1Introduction262.2Definition of Fair Recruitment and Modalities of Recruitment in Asia262.3Worker Paid Recruitment Fees, Costs, and Wages: Summary Informationfrom SDG Target 10.7.1 Surveys for the Asia and Pacific292.4Why Ensuring Fair Recruitment is an Uphill Battle332.5Conclusions and the Way Forward473Training In-country Programming for Would-be Migrants in Asia and the Pacific563.1Introduction563.2Who Trains Labor Migrants?573.3Sectors for Training in Country of Origin633.4Conclusions684Outward Migration, Remittances, and Socioeconomic Development:The Cases of Nepal and the Philippines734.1Overview734.2Nepal764.3The Philippines91Annexes1Economy-Specific Notes1022Comparative Tables128 TABLES, FIGURES,AND BOXES TABLES 1.1Outflows of Workers from Selected Asian Countries, 2012–202431.2Flows of Workers to Gulf Cooperation Council Countries, Main Sending Countries,2024 and % change 2023–202431.3Flows of Workers to ASEAN Countries, by Origin and Destination, 202441.4Singapore, Foreign Workforce Numbers, 2019–2024121.5Foreign workers in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Viet Nam, 2012–2024132.1aRecruitment Methods for Migrant Workers in Countries of Destination,Percent of Total, Selected Countries282.1bRecruitment Methods for Migrant Workers in Country of Origin, Percent of Total, Selected Countries282.2aMigratory Status of Workers, Philippines 2019292.2bMigrant Workers: Modes of Entry into Thailand, 2019292.3Recruitment Cost Indicators 10.7.1, Selected Countries30